Parallelism
Parallelism is the way that we pattern
writing so that similar elements in a sentence are grammatically equivalent.
That is, if there are two or more subjects, they are all nouns or noun phrases.
If there are two or more verbs, they are all of the same form. If there are two
prepositional phrases, they are similar in form (with no verbs snuck in to
transform one of them into a clause). Achieving parallelism smoothes out
writing and increases its impact.
Parallelism is so important
to the smooth flow of ideas that comedians sometimes deliberately violate the
rules of parallelism in order to make us laugh.
1) Coordination
Coordinating conjunctions must
connect like-patterned things. This sentence uses parallel compound subjects.
When you connect two clauses using a coordinating conjunction (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, so), make sure that the same grammatical structure is
used on each side of the conjunction.
Example
:
When I walk the dog, I like to listen to
music and talking to friends on the phone.
The first sentence uses two different
verb forms (to listen, talking). In the second sentence, the
grammatical construction on each side of the coordinating conjunction (and)
is the same, creating a parallel sentence. The same technique should be used
for joining items or lists in a series:
Exaple :
This committee needs to decide
whether the company should reduce its workforce, cut its benefits, or lowering
workers’ wages.
The first sentence contains two items that use the
same verb construction (reduce, cut) and a third item that uses a different
verb form (lowering). The second sentence uses the same verb construction in
all three items, creating a parallel structure.
2) Correlation
In correlative pairs
(either...or, not only...but also, neither...nor, both...and) whatever
grammatical element follows the first part must follow the second as well.
We could either leave [present
tense verb] at dusk or wait [present tense verb] until the
planetarium opened.
The sound of the coyotes yammering in the
distance was not only very haunting [adverb-adjective] but
also somehow comforting [adverb-adjective].
A non-parallel
version might be, "The sound of the coyotes yammering in the distance was
not only rather haunting but also comforted us in some strange way."
Other connecting words similar
to correlative pairs benefit from and sometimes require parallel structure. Use
parallel structure when comparing (more than, less than) or contrasting (rather
[this] than [that], instead of), and in expressions such as "from [this]
to [that]"
Even more than lunch [noun], I
would like a cold drink [noun].
A non-parallel version is clumsier
(though not technically incorrect): "Even more than lunch, I
would like to get something to drink."
They decided that they would rather tour
[present tense verb] the brewery than visit [present tense
verb] the art glass factory.
Here is a version using non-parallel
verbs following "rather...than": "They decided that they would
rather tour the brewery than be visiting the art glass
factory." Another characteristic of parallel expression in correlative
pairs is that the two parts of the expression are developed similarly; that is,
each part contains approximately the same amount of detail:
I prefer dancing [noun] to drinking
[noun].
The parallel nouns in this
example are both gerunds. We could have said, "I prefer dancing
to a bunch of drunks who can't balance even on two legs." The
point is rather the same, but the nouns are of different types and the two
halves of the expression are unevenly developed: the second half is developed
with more enthusiasm than the first half.
3)
Series,
lists, and outlines
In
sentences, items in a series need to be parallel in form:
I'm registered for economics,
drafting, and Spanish
[parallel nouns].
Compare
to this: "I'm registered for economics, to learn drafting, and practicing
Spanish." This incorrect, non-parallel version combines a
prepositional phrase, an infinitive phrase, and a gerund.
The following sentence contains a
single subject and compound parallel verbs:
The tutors can explain the
assignment, help you locate background material, and give you
tips for citing your sources
[parallel verb forms].
The
verbs are parallel in form and share the single subject, tutors. Compare
this with the following: "The tutors can explain the assignment, help
you locate background material, and you learn valuable tips for citing
your sources." Even though the third verb looks similar, sticking in a
second subject (you) breaks the pattern.
Series
items are not necessarily verbs or nouns. The following example uses a series
of parallel modifiers:
Marketing should consider
whether the plan is feasible, impractical, or impossible [parallel adjectives].
The
above example is easy to understand compared to this: "Marketing should
consider the feasibility of the plan, as well as whether it is impractical or
if we should simply consider it impossible."
Items
in lists require parallel form, whether they occur in a sentence following a
colon or in a bulleted list (frequently used by business writers):
Be sure you bring all the
essentials: sunscreen, insect repellent, water, snacks, fire
starter, whistle, emergency shelter, first aid kit, and extra
clothing [parallel nouns].
In the following non-parallel form,
extra verbs break the pattern (and, worse, create comma splices): "Be sure
you bring all the essentials: sunscreen, insect repellent is important, water,
snacks, fire starter is useful, especially the newer magnesium ones, whistle,
emergency shelter, first aid kit, and you never know when you'll need a change
of clothing."
Bulleted lists should always begin
with parallel forms.
College outreach representatives
should be able to perform these tasks:
· Identify the special needs of the at-risk high school population
· Formulate a plan
that addresses those needs
· Communicate the plan effectively to high school counselors [parallel verb phrases]
The
bullets can be written as parallel verb or noun phrases, prepositional phrases,
or even complete sentences. (Write the introductory sentence so that it
logically and grammatically leads into whatever list follows. For example, the
sentence "College outreach representatives should have these characteristics:"
could not logically introduce the above example, since the list is not one of
personal characteristics.)
The
headings of formal outlines (that is, outlines that are to be turned in as part
of an assignment rather than used for personal reference and study) require
parallel form:
I. Things to do in Bidwell Park [noun phrase
A. Swim in Big Chico Creek [verb phrase]
1. The water can be cold early
in the summer.
2. Some of the swimming holes can be dangerous.
3. Sycamore Pool has lifeguards in the summer. [full sentences]
B. Hike in Upper Park [verb phrase]
1. Early morning is a cooler
time.
2. There is very little shade most of the way.
3. The views are spectacular.
[full sentences]
II. Things to do in downtown
Chico [noun phrase]
Notice
that the corresponding levels of the outline are parallel with each other,
although not every level is parallel to every other level. The main headings I
and II are noun phrases. Headings A and B are verb phrases; heading C would
also have been a verb phrase. On the other hand, the details 1, 2, and 3 are
all complete sentences. You may use phrases or sentences at any level, as long
as you keep corresponding items in each level parallel in structure.
Logical Order
Logical Order
is to arrange the sentence in chronological order to show a sequence of events
or the passing of time. Another is to arrange sentences in order of importance.
This can be done by either moving from the most important point to the least
important point or going the opposite way, from the least important to the most
important. Another common organization is to move from a general point, getting
more specific as the paragraph moves along or to move from specific to general.
No matter what order is chosen, maintaining the pattern is important to keep
the paragraph clear.
Logical order
can also apply to flow of paragraphs within an entire document. Like the
organization of a paragraph, the organization of a document should consistent.
In addition to
using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a fourth way to
achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical order.
Logical Order can organising
the sentences in your paragraph according to a logical order helps the reader
to follow the development of your ideas
Some common kinds of logical order are:
·
Chronological
order
·
Comparison/contrast
·
Logical division
of ideas
·
Order of
importance
·
Cause and effect
A. Chronological Order
Each
kind of order uses particular words and phrases (transition words) to show the
relationships between ideas. For example in a paragraph
using chronological order, you would use expressions
of time: first, next, after that, finally, before the last war, after
2010, since then,
•
This kind of logical order involves organizing your
ideas in a paragraph in the order of their occurrence in time. In academic
writing, chronological order has many uses. One common way to use this kind of
logical order is in a historical narrative, for example a biography
•
There are two keys to writing a good chronological
paragraph:
•
1. Discuss the events (in a narrative) or the steps
(in a process) in the order in which they occur.
2. Use chronological transition signals to indicate the sequence of events or
steps.
Example :
•
What
did you do today ?
•
What’s
your typical Saturday / Sunday ?
•
An
important event in your life.
•
How
do you cook … ?
•
How
to make someone you know angry or happy.
•
How
to flirt.
B.
Comparison/contrast
In
a paragraph describing differences
(contrast), you would use expressions like these: the most significant
difference, larger than, unlike, on the other hand, in contrast, differ from
In
a paragraph showing similarities
(comparison), you would use expressions such as: similarity,
similarly, as expensive as, just as, just like, compare with, in comparison
•
Comparison/contrast involves analysing the
similarities and differences between two or more items. As with other
paragraphs the keys to writing a comparison/contrast paragraph are to put your
ideas into some kind of order and to use appropriate transition signals.
•
The content of a comparison/contrast paragraph can
vary. Some paragraphs emphasize similarities, while others emphasize
differences. You can discuss both similarities and differences in one paragraph
if you do not have many points to discuss.
Example :
What
are the similarities or differences between :-
-
Men and women.
-
Cats and dogs.
-
The rich and poor.
-
you and your parents / siblings?
•
Compare and contrast your parents.
C.
Logical division of ideas
Logical division of
ideas simply means
that ideas are grouped together, and each group is discussed accordingly. They
may be introduced in order of
importance, or in some other order that makes sense to the reader. You
would use transition words such as firstly, secondly, thirdly
to introduce each group.
•
This kind of logical order is the most common method
of organizing your written thoughts in English essays. When you use this method
you group related ideas together and discuss each group, one after the other.
•
In everyday life, things are divided into groups.
Supermarkets separate groceries into different groups: produce, is in one
section and milk products are in another section for example. Therefore
remember to group your ideas into common groups and this will help your writing
coherence.
Example:
You can use logical division to organize many
kinds of topics, for example:
•
Reason for owning an
iPad/blackberry/PDA, for exercising/not exercising, for learning English, for
being a teacher, etc.
•
Kinds
of teachers/foods
/drivers/friends/students/bosses etc.
•
Types of books/movies/music/TV program I
like/don’t like etc.
•
Advantages
or disadvantages of
living in a small town/big city/college dormitory, of being the youngest
child/twin, etc.
•
Quality of a good boss/good employee/good
friend/teacher/parent etc.
D.
Cause and effect
A cause and effect paragraph uses transition
words that express reasons and results, such as: the first cause, the next
reason, because of ... the first effect, as a result, therefore
0 Comments